International Journal of Plant & Soil Science

Digital Monitoring, Reporting and Verification of Soil Carbon in Carbon Farming: A Critical Review of Integrating Remote Sensing, Proximal Sensing, Artificial Intelligence and Process-Based Models

Aditya V. Machnoor, K. G. Rosin, Rakesh Kokatnoor, Arun S. Kalasad — Thu, 17 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Carbon farming schemes increasingly pay land managers for increases in soil organic carbon, yet the credibility of these payments depends on monitoring, reporting and verification systems that can quantify small changes in a large and spatially variable carbon pool. Digital monitoring, reporting and verification promises to lower costs by combining satellite and airborne remote sensing, proximal soil sensing, artificial intelligence and process-based biogeochemical models, but the evidence that such combinations yield unbiased, verifiable estimates of soil organic carbon change remains uneven. This critical narrative review evaluates what each evidence stream can and cannot contribute to credible soil carbon accounting, how their integration propagates or reduces error, and which claims are established rather than preliminary. Literature was identified through structured searches of multidisciplinary scholarly indexes, backward and forward citation tracing and examination of institutional methodologies, and was appraised for design, validation strategy, uncertainty treatment and transferability. The synthesis indicates that direct measurement remains the only independent reference for soil organic carbon change, but that field-level detection is statistically weak unless sampling is dense, paired and replicated across many fields. Remote sensing is most reliable for documenting management practices and crop biomass rather than for retrieving topsoil carbon change, which is confounded by moisture, residue cover and roughness and is restricted to the surface layer. Proximal spectroscopy can reduce analytical costs substantially, provided that calibration transfer, bulk density and measurement error are handled explicitly. Machine learning improves spatial prediction but can overstate accuracy when validation ignores spatial dependence and extrapolation. Calibrated process-based models remain the principal engine for estimating change at scale, although independent time-series validation is scarce. Hybrid architectures that assimilate observations into mechanistic models are promising but have been tested mainly in a few temperate regions. Credibility therefore depends less on any single technology than on design-based verification, counterfactual baselines, transparent uncertainty propagation and explicit validity domains. Priorities include randomised multi-field measure-and-remeasure networks, open benchmark datasets, standardised uncertainty reporting and evaluation in smallholder and tropical systems.

Optimising Fodder Maize Productivity across Soil Fertility Gradients: A Critical Review of Soil Test Crop Response Strategies for Sustainable Nutrient Management

Sat, 19 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Fodder maize (Zea mays L.) is a high-biomass, nutrient-responsive forage whose economic value depends on both harvested mass and nutritive quality. Fertiliser recommendations based on regional averages can therefore be inefficient when fields differ markedly in native nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium supply, organic matter, pH, texture, previous management and residual fertility. This critical narrative review evaluates soil test crop response (STCR) and related targeted-yield strategies as a basis for improving fodder maize nutrient management across soil fertility gradients. Literature published principally from January 2010 to 26 June 2026 was considered, with older foundational methodological sources retained where necessary. The evidence shows that STCR offers a defensible framework because fertiliser rates are adjusted to a yield target and to measured soil nutrient supply rather than applied as a uniform dose. Maize studies across Alfisols, Vertisols, Inceptisols and related soils generally demonstrate improved target attainment, nutrient-use efficiency or economic performance when calibrated STCR or STCR-integrated plant nutrient supply approaches are compared with blanket recommendations. Nevertheless, transfer to fodder maize remains less secure than the broader maize literature suggests. Direct fodder studies confirm strong interactions among nitrogen rate, plant density, zinc supply, water regime, cultivar and harvest endpoint, while recent fodder-specific STCR work shows that deliberate fertility gradients can be established in lateritic soils. Yet contemporary multi-location validation of fodder-specific target equations, dry-matter removal, feed-quality safeguards, residual nutrient credits and environmental outcomes is still limited. The most defensible pathway is therefore an STCR-plus strategy: locally calibrated pre-season soil-test prescriptions, explicit organic nutrient credits, and in-season nitrogen adjustment using crop sensing, with potassium and micronutrient balance evaluated against whole-plant removal. Future research should prioritise multi-soil calibration and external validation using green-fodder yield, dry-matter yield, nutritive quality, nutrient recovery, profitability and soil nutrient balance as joint outcomes. STCR can support sustainable fodder maize intensification, but its reliability depends on calibration domain, measurement quality and repeated validation rather than on universal transfer of published equations.

Quantifying Soil–plant Nutrient Dynamics in Nitrogen-fixing Trees and Shrubs under Soil Amendments and Bio-inoculants: A Critical Appraisal of Measurement Methods in Containerised Nursery and Field Systems

Ranjan Kumar Kar, Kalidas Upadhyaya, Pratap Chandra Panda — Sat, 19 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Nitrogen-fixing trees and shrubs are planted widely in nursery-raised restoration programmes, mixed-species plantations and agroforestry systems, and soil or substrate amendments and bio-inoculants are applied routinely to improve their nutrition. Confidence in the reported effects of these interventions rests on measurement systems whose validity conditions the interventions themselves disturb, and this dependence has not been examined systematically. This critical narrative review appraises the methods used to quantify soil–plant nutrient dynamics in woody nitrogen-fixing systems across containerised nursery and field domains. Literature was identified in open scholarly indexes and agricultural and biomedical databases, supplemented by citation searching and institutional technical sources, for the period 1985 to 14 June 2026, and was selected and appraised for its bearing on measurement validity rather than for effect estimation. Five arguments emerge. Methods for estimating symbiotic nitrogen input each hold one quantity constant, and amendments or inoculation alter that quantity, with predictable directions of bias. Extraction-based measures of nutrient availability lose their calibration to plant uptake when sorptive amendments are present, and the best-documented case shows soil test results and plant responses moving in opposite directions. Diffusion-based and sink-based measures of phosphorus availability outperform conventional extraction in high-sorption soils, which is the soil class most relevant to restoration planting. Colonisation percentages, functional gene abundances and acetylene-dependent activity are surrogates whose conversion to nutrient fluxes is neither linear nor stable, yet they are frequently reported as fluxes. Containerised and field systems are distinct measurement domains rather than two scales of one system, so container results support statements about mechanism and capability but not about magnitude. Major unresolved questions concern host-specific isotopic fractionation parameters for the species in widest use, the separation of inoculant establishment from inoculant effectiveness, and the persistence of nursery treatment effects after outplanting. A substantial and identifiable portion of the apparent variability in this literature is methodological rather than biological, and most remedies require changes to design and reporting rather than new instrumentation.

Potassium in Calcareous Soils and the Chemical Extractants Used to Evaluate It: A Critical Narrative Review of Availability Mechanisms and Soil-Test Performance

Savreen Kaur, Sumita Chandel, Kuldip Singh — Mon, 21 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Calcareous soils occupy a substantial share of the cultivated land of arid and semi-arid regions, and their carbonate-buffered, calcium-dominated chemistry alters almost every process that governs potassium supply to crops. Soil-test procedures used to advise potassium fertilisation in these soils were largely inherited from temperate, carbonate-free systems, and their transfer has never been fully reconciled with the mineralogical and chemical peculiarities of carbonate-rich media. This review examines what the accessible literature establishes about potassium behaviour in calcareous soils and how reliably the principal chemical extractants represent plant-available potassium in that setting. Evidence was assembled from open scholarly indexes and appraised for design adequacy, calibration quality and interpretive transparency rather than for citation frequency alone. Four themes emerge. Mineral inheritance, in particular the abundance and particle size of micaceous minerals, exerts stronger control over potassium supply than does exchangeable potassium alone, and interlayer release is kinetically slow yet agronomically substantial. Neutral ammonium acetate, acidic multi-nutrient reagents and dilute salt solutions frequently correlate closely with one another in calcareous soils, and this mutual agreement has repeatedly been mistaken for agronomic validity. Extractants that engage the non-exchangeable pool, including boiling nitric acid, sodium tetraphenylboron, cation-exchange resins and organic acid mixtures, generally track plant uptake more closely in soils with appreciable interlayer reserves, although the advantage is inconsistent and depends on clay mineralogy. Carbonate dissolution, sample drying, extraction ratio and analytical finish introduce method-dependent bias that is rarely quantified or reported. Confidence in current critical limits is limited by the scarcity of multi-season field calibration in genuinely calcareous soils, by the predominance of short glasshouse studies, and by narrow geographical representation. Priorities include mineralogically stratified field calibration, standardised reporting of extraction conditions, and evaluation of kinetic and diffusion-based indices against measured crop uptake rather than against other extractants.

Cocoa Agroforestry in a Warming World: A Critical Synthesis of Shade Design, Carbon, Biodiversity, Yield and Climate Resilience

Majjiga Sreenivas — Tue, 22 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Cocoa production is increasingly exposed to heat, rainfall variability and severe drought, while the ecological simplification of many cocoa landscapes has reduced the biological and structural buffers that can moderate climatic stress. Cocoa agroforestry is therefore promoted as a strategy that can simultaneously support adaptation, carbon storage, biodiversity and farmer livelihoods. Yet this proposition is often expressed too generally: shade can cool cocoa canopies and reduce atmospheric demand, but shade trees also compete for light and water, alter pest and disease environments, and create labour and economic obligations. This critical narrative review evaluates how shade-tree identity, functional traits, canopy architecture, density and spatial arrangement mediate these trade-offs. Literature published from 1 January 2000 to 15 July 2026 was considered, with earlier or later records excluded from the evidential synthesis except where bibliographic verification was required. Evidence was appraised for design quality, climatic context, duration, measurement validity and transferability across producing regions. The synthesis shows that cocoa agroforestry cannot be reduced to a universal shade percentage. Elevated crowns, seasonally appropriate leaf phenology, complementary rooting and useful by-products can improve microclimate regulation while limiting crop competition, whereas poorly matched species or excessive canopy closure may depress yield, intensify water competition or favour disease. Aboveground carbon gains under agroforestry are well supported, but soil-carbon responses are less consistent and forest conservation remains irreplaceable. Biodiversity generally benefits from structural complexity relative to open cocoa, although agroforests remain imperfect substitutes for intact forest and responses depend on land-use history and landscape context. Economic evidence further shows that yield alone is an inadequate indicator of farm performance. The most defensible pathway is climate-contingent functional shade design combined with farmer knowledge, monitoring and adaptive management. Future research should prioritise long-term, multi-site experiments that jointly quantify crop physiology, yield, biodiversity, carbon, disease, labour and profitability under realistic climate extremes.

Sorghum Seed Health Management: Implications of Legume Intercropping for Seed-borne Fungal Pathogens, Seed Quality and Longevity

O. K. Mutai, J. O. Were, B. Aloo — Tue, 22 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) is an important staple crop for food security, income generation, and livelihoods, especially in the semi-arid regions of sub-Saharan Africa. However, seed-borne fungal diseases pose a significant constraint to sorghum productivity by affecting germination, seed vigour, seedling establishment, grain quality, and storage longevity. This review synthesises existing knowledge on sorghum seed health and seed-borne fungal pathogens, and the potential role of sorghum–legume intercropping in influencing fungal infection, seed quality, and storability. Important seed-associated fungi, including Fusarium, Alternaria, Curvularia, Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Colletotrichum, have been reported in sorghum and are associated with reduced seed viability, seedling establishment, grain deterioration during storage, and potential mycotoxin contamination. Sorghum–legume intercropping contributes to seed health management by disrupting continuous host cropping, altering the crop microclimate, enhancing soil fertility, and modifying beneficial microbial communities. However, a thick intercrop canopy could also increase humidity and thus favour fungal growth in certain environments. Although evidence for agronomic services of intercropping is growing, there is a paucity of literature relating specific legume species to seed-borne fungal infection, seed vigour, and storage longevity, especially in the semi-arid region of East Africa. Future research should integrate field-based disease assessment, pathogen identification and characterisation, seed quality testing, and storage studies to elucidate these interactions for sustainable sorghum seed health management.

Harnessing Microalgae for Sustainable Agriculture

T. Kalaisri, V. Sridevi — Wed, 23 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Modern agriculture requires approaches that sustain crop productivity while reducing environmental burdens associated with intensive synthetic inputs. This review examines microalgae as multifunctional biological resources for sustainable agriculture, with emphasis on their roles as biofertilisers, biostimulants, biopesticides, soil amendments, and agents of bioremediation. Microalgal and cyanobacterial biomass can contribute to nutrient availability through biological nitrogen fixation, phosphorus and potassium mobilisation, and the delivery of macro- and micronutrients. Their metabolites, including phytohormones, polysaccharides, amino acids, vitamins, and antioxidant compounds, can support plant growth and stress responses. Microalgae also produce bioactive substances with potential applications in disease, insect, nematode, and weed management. In soils, microalgal biomass and exopolysaccharides can support aggregation, moisture retention, organic carbon inputs, and microbial activity, while microalgae-derived biochar provides an additional soil-amendment option. Microalgal systems may also assist in the removal of nutrients, heavy metals, and selected organic pollutants from contaminated soils and agricultural wastewater, with treated effluents and residual biomass offering opportunities for resource recycling. Open raceway ponds and closed photobioreactors provide contrasting production options, although large-scale cultivation costs, formulation stability, and variable field performance remain important constraints. Overall, the reviewed evidence supports the integration of microalgal technologies within circular agricultural systems, while further work is needed to improve production efficiency, application consistency, and practical scalability.

Biofortification Techniques for Nutritional Improvement of Vegetable Crops: A Critical Narrative Review of Agronomic, Breeding and Genome-Based Approaches

Krishna Vijay Singh, Vijay Bahadur, Abdul Shamad — Thu, 24 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Background: Inadequate intakes of iodine, iron, zinc, selenium, folate and several vitamins remain widespread, and biofortification, the enrichment of edible plant parts with nutrients during crop growth, has become an established complement to supplementation and industrial fortification. Most biofortification research and policy has been built around cereals and pulses, whereas vegetables differ in portion size, water content, harvested organ, production system and consumption practice.

Purpose and Scope: This critical narrative review appraises agronomic, breeding and biotechnological techniques used to biofortify vegetables, including potato and sweetpotato, and asks which techniques produce nutritionally meaningful, bioavailable, safe and deployable gains.

Approach: Peer-reviewed literature published from January 2000 to July 2026 was identified through multidisciplinary and topic-specific scholarly sources, supplemented by citation searching and authoritative institutional documents, and was appraised for relevance, design, reporting basis, environmental replication and the level of nutritional evidence reached.

Principal Findings: Agronomic enrichment with selenium and iodine is reliable in controlled and field conditions, but it operates within narrow safety margins and can alter other quality traits, while iron enrichment of vegetables through fertilisation is largely ineffective. Zinc responds to foliar and soil application in potato, although excessive doses reduce yield and may raise phytate. Conventional breeding has produced the strongest human evidence, notably for orange-fleshed sweetpotato and iron-dense potato, yet absorption studies show that higher concentration does not guarantee proportionally higher absorbed nutrient. Metabolic engineering and genome editing have generated striking gains in carotenoids, folate, anthocyanins, ascorbate, provitamin D3 and γ-aminobutyric acid in tomato, potato and lettuce, but few such lines have been tested for bioavailability, stability or agronomic performance across environments. Evidence for microbial and nanoscale enrichment remains largely confined to short-term controlled studies.

Unresolved Questions: Major gaps concern portion-based reporting, post-harvest retention, human bioavailability, multi-nutrient stacking and cost-effectiveness outside staple systems.

Implications: Technique choice should be matched to the nutrient, crop organ and delivery context rather than to technological novelty.

Conclusion: Vegetable biofortification is technically feasible for several nutrients, but its public-health value remains demonstrated for only a small subset of crop–nutrient combinations.

Climate Extremes and the Plant Disease Triangle: A Critical Synthesis of Host, Pathogen and Microbiome Mechanisms and their Implications for Crop Protection

Sat, 26 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

The disease triangle, in which disease arises from the intersection of a susceptible host, a virulent pathogen and a conducive environment, has organised plant pathology for more than half a century. Its environmental apex was conceived as a relatively stable backdrop, yet heatwaves, compound drought and heat episodes, extreme humidity and short-duration flooding now perturb that apex on timescales shorter than a single crop cycle. This review critically evaluates whether the accumulated mechanistic, ecological and agronomic evidence justifies a structural revision of the framework, and what such a revision would mean for crop protection. Literature was identified through open scholarly indexes and institutional sources, appraised for design adequacy and translational relevance, and synthesised thematically rather than catalogued. Three conclusions are defensible. Moderately elevated temperature suppresses salicylic-acid-dependent immunity through identifiable molecular nodes, and this suppression has been partially reversed by genetic manipulation, which establishes mechanism rather than mere correlation. Water status functions as an actively contested resource rather than a passive variable, since bacterial effectors manipulate host abscisic acid signalling to hydrate the leaf apoplast. Drought and warming reshape root and leaf microbiota in partially conserved directions, although the inference that such reshaping causes disease remains supported mainly by association, by artificial community reconstitution and by a small number of host-genetic experiments. Confidence is weakest where it matters most for agriculture: almost all mechanistic work uses a narrow set of model pathosystems under constant-temperature growth conditions, field validation under realistic fluctuating extremes is scarce, and microbiome interventions have rarely been tested for efficacy under the stress conditions that justify them. The evidence supports treating the microbiota as a modifier that operates within each apex rather than as a self-contained fourth apex, and supports prioritising thermoresilient resistance, stress-validated biological products and extremes-aware forecasting. Claims that climate extremes uniformly intensify plant disease are not supported; the direction of change is pathosystem-specific and frequently non-monotonic.

Magnesium: Functions, Deficiency, Toxicity and Corrective Measures–A Review

K. Sadhana, R. Kamaleshwaran — Thu, 01 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Magnesium (Mg) is an essential secondary macronutrient that contributes to numerous structural, physiological, and biochemical processes in plants. This review examines the major functions of Mg in plant nutrition, the causes and consequences of Mg deficiency and excessive Mg supply, and the principal approaches used for corrective management. Magnesium is central to chlorophyll structure and is involved in photosynthesis, energy transfer, enzyme activation, protein and nucleic acid synthesis, carbohydrate metabolism, phloem loading, assimilate translocation, and ionic regulation. Deficiency commonly develops in acidic, coarse-textured, highly weathered, or intensively cultivated soils where Mg reserves are limited or losses through leaching and crop removal are substantial. Nutrient imbalance, particularly excessive potassium supply, may further restrict Mg uptake. Characteristic deficiency symptoms include interveinal chlorosis of older leaves, followed by progressive chlorosis, necrosis, premature senescence, impaired photosynthesis, disturbed carbohydrate partitioning, and reductions in crop growth and productivity. Excessive Mg is less frequent and primarily causes problems through antagonistic interactions with calcium and potassium and through unfavourable cation balance. Appropriate management therefore requires soil and plant diagnosis, balanced fertilisation, suitable Mg-containing amendments, correction of soil acidity, organic inputs, foliar supplementation where appropriate, and careful management of interacting nutrients. An integrated diagnostic approach can support adequate Mg nutrition while avoiding unnecessary nutrient application.

Dragon Fruit and Beyond: Harnessing the Diversity of Cactaceae

Sat, 03 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

The intensification of environmental stressors due to climate change has positioned the Cactaceae family as a vital frontier in sustainable, climate-resilient agriculture. These plants rely on Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM), which confers exceptional water-use efficiency and allows them to match the yields of conventional crops while requiring significantly fewer inputs. Their structural adaptations, such as specialised succulent stems and areoles, enable survival in xeric landscapes. Several species, such as dragon fruit, prickly pear, and saguaro, possess notable nutritional and medicinal value owing to their high antioxidant and betalain content. Among these, dragon fruit has gained increasing importance among farmers worldwide, driven by its rising market demand, profitability, and suitability for cultivation on marginal lands. Genomic advances and innovative breeding strategies, such as polyploidy induction and light-based photoperiod management, highlight the importance of studies on this topic, particularly studies of their role in overcoming biological barriers such as self-incompatibility to enhance productivity. Despite ongoing challenges in post-harvest handling and market infrastructure, the integration of traditional knowledge with modern biotechnology positions Cactaceae fruit crops as essential tools for global food security and the economic resilience of rural communities in arid regions. This review explores the botanical diversity and economic potential of these "living jewels," with a primary focus on the global rise of dragon fruit as a commercially significant crop.

Iron Toxicity in Rice: Mechanisms of Tolerance and Prospects for Genetic Improvement

K. A. Muhusina Roshin, K. Bini — Mon, 12 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Iron toxicity is an important abiotic constraint to rice production, particularly in flooded and acid sulphate soils where high concentrations of soluble ferrous iron can accumulate. This review synthesises current knowledge of iron acquisition, toxicity symptoms, tolerance mechanisms, and opportunities for the genetic improvement of rice under iron-toxic conditions. Rice possesses a distinctive iron-acquisition system that combines phytosiderophore-mediated uptake with the direct absorption of ferrous iron. Although this system supports iron nutrition under flooded conditions, excessive iron uptake can promote reactive oxygen species formation and cause leaf bronzing, impaired growth, nutrient imbalance, reduced photosynthetic performance, and yield loss. Rice plants respond through multiple anatomical, physiological, biochemical, and molecular defence mechanisms. These include rhizospheric iron oxidation and plaque formation, restriction of iron movement from roots to shoots, tissue compartmentalisation, ferritin-mediated sequestration, chelation, and enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant responses. Iron transporters, regulatory proteins, chelators, and stress-responsive genes contribute to maintaining cellular iron homeostasis and reducing oxidative injury. Considerable genotypic variation in tolerance provides opportunities for breeding through conventional selection, marker-assisted approaches, quantitative trait locus analysis, genome-wide association studies, and other genomic tools. Integrating physiological screening with molecular and genetic approaches can improve understanding of the complex basis of iron-toxicity tolerance and support the development of rice varieties better adapted to iron-toxic environments.

Multi-Omics Integration for Crop Improvement: Connecting Genomes, Transcriptomes, Proteomes and Metabolomes

Wed, 14 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Crop improvement increasingly depends on resolving how inherited sequence variation is converted into context-dependent molecular states and, ultimately, agronomic phenotypes. Genomics supplies stable information on allelic and structural variation, whereas transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics progressively capture regulatory activity, functional molecular abundance and biochemical state. Their integration is therefore attractive, but the central breeding question is not whether more data can be combined; it is when added molecular layers improve causal inference, trait prediction or selection decisions beyond a strong genomic baseline. This critical narrative review evaluates evidence linking the four core omics layers in crop research, with emphasis on pangenome-aware genomics, expression and association mapping, proteome and post-translational regulation, metabolic endophenotypes, multi-block statistical integration, network models and machine-learning approaches. The literature indicates strong value for cross-omics integration in candidate-gene prioritisation, pathway reconstruction and mechanistic interpretation, particularly when genomic associations are anchored to expression, protein or metabolite variation measured in relevant tissues and environments. Evidence for routine prediction gains is less uniform. Metabolomic and transcriptomic profiles can be highly predictive in some populations, yet comparative studies show that combined multi-omics models may fail to outperform genomic prediction when molecular measurements are noisy, environmentally contingent, redundant with genetic relationships or evaluated without stringent out-of-environment validation. Proteomic integration adds biologically important information that is not reliably inferred from messenger RNA, but coverage, cost and post-translational complexity remain substantial constraints. The field is moving towards graph pangenomes, matched longitudinal sampling, interpretable multimodal models and integration with deep phenotyping and environmental covariates. The most defensible near-term strategy is consequently selective rather than maximal integration: deploy the molecular layer whose biological position and measurement reliability match the breeding question, validate improvements against genomic baselines, and prioritise designs that can demonstrate transfer across environments and breeding cycles.

Endophytes–Hidden Influences on Nutrient Acquisition and Abiotic Stress Mitigation

J. C. Aswathy, Sheeba Rebecca Isaac, P. Shalini Pillai — Fri, 16 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Climate change and associated fluctuations in rainfall, temperature and water availability place increasing pressure on agricultural production. Sustainable improvements in crop productivity therefore require approaches that support nutrient acquisition and plant performance without increasing dependence on synthetic inputs. Endophytic bacteria and fungi inhabit internal plant tissues and can influence host growth through several direct and indirect mechanisms. This review examines their reported contributions to nutrient acquisition and the mitigation of abiotic stress. Endophytes may assist nitrogen acquisition through biological nitrogen fixation, improve phosphorus availability through solubilisation and mobilisation, and contribute to potassium and micronutrient nutrition. Additional interactions involve siderophore production, changes in root architecture and the modulation of phytohormones. Under drought, salinity and temperature stress, endophyte-associated plants have been reported to exhibit changes in water relations, antioxidant activity, osmotic adjustment and growth responses. The manuscript also discusses endophyte-assisted responses to heavy-metal stress and the practical constraints affecting agricultural use. These include difficulties in isolation, variability in colonisation and performance under field conditions, competition with native microorganisms, pathogenicity concerns and formulation requirements. Although reported findings indicate potential benefits for sustainable crop production, responses vary with the host, microorganism and environmental conditions. Further work is needed to clarify cellular nutrient-transfer processes and optimise reliable, safe and economical applications of endophytes in agricultural systems.

Influence of Biochar and Inorganic Fertilizer on Soil Properties, Growth, Yield and Quality Parameters of French Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

Alok Maurya, Anil Kumar Singh, Om Kumar, Sneha Kumari — Tue, 15 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is an important legume vegetable crop; the integrated use of biochar with inorganic fertilisers may improve soil properties, nutrient availability and nutrient-use efficiency. Therefore, evaluating this approach is important for achieving sustainable and productive French bean cultivation in the Inceptisols of the Kanpur region. A field experiment was conducted at the Student's Instructional Farm, Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, during the Rabi season of 2025-26 to evaluate the effect of graded levels of biochar and fertiliser on the growth, yield-attributing characters and yield of French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) cv. Arka Komal grown on a sandy loam Inceptisol. The experiment comprised eight distinct treatment combinations (T1 to T8) evaluated in a randomised block design with three replications. The treatments incorporated varying levels of the recommended dose of fertiliser (RDF), namely 100%, 75%, and 50% RDF, together with biochar application rates of 1, 1.5, and 2 t ha-1. Growth, yield-attributing characters and yield were significantly influenced by treatment: T₄ (100% RDF + biochar @ 2.0 t ha⁻¹) recorded the maximum plant height of 14.50 cm at 30 days after sowing (DAS) and 45.12 cm at 60 DAS. Furthermore, the highest pod length (12.34 cm), number of pods plant-1 (32.42), seed index (42.12 g), seed yield (16.85 q ha-1), straw yield (27.68 q ha-1) and biological yield (44.53 q ha-1) were recorded under treatment T4, representing a substantial seed yield increase of approximately 31.03% over the control treatment (T8: 50% RDF + Biochar @ 2.0 t ha-1). Harvest index (35.42–37.84%) did not differ significantly among treatments. Combining the full recommended fertiliser dose with biochar @ 2.0 t ha⁻¹ was an effective option for improving French bean productivity on the alluvial Inceptisols of the Central Plain Zone of Uttar Pradesh.

Rainfall Probability Analysis, Runoff Assessment and Water-Harvesting-Based Cropping Planning in Vihokhu Watershed, Dimapur, Nagaland, North-Eastern India

Kivishe, R. C. Nayak, Leiyachui Pherim, Sewak Ram, Samar Thakuria — Wed, 16 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Aims: The study was undertaken to assess dependable rainfall availability, estimate runoff and crop-water surplus or deficit, and develop a water-harvesting-based cropping plan for Vihokhu watershed of Nagaland, India.

Study Design: Hydrological data for a 15-year period (2007–2021) were analysed for annual, monthly and weekly rainfall, dependable rainfall probability, runoff generation, crop-water requirement and water-storage potential.

Place and Duration of Study: Vihokhu watershed, Kuhuboto Block, Dimapur district, Nagaland, India; rainfall data covering 2007–2021 were analysed.

Methodology: The watershed covers approximately 807 ha. Rainfall data obtained from the Dimapur Soil and Water Conservation Office were analysed at annual, monthly and weekly intervals. Weekly rainfall was estimated at 60, 70, 75 and 80% probability levels using probability analysis, with the 75% probability level selected for agricultural planning. Runoff was estimated using Binnie's runoff coefficient method. Crop-water requirements were assessed weekly for crops grown or proposed for Kharif, Rabi and Zaid seasons. Surplus runoff was evaluated for storage and subsequent irrigation use.

Results: The watershed received an average annual rainfall of 1564.11 mm during 2007–2021. Annual rainfall ranged from 1047.8 mm in 2017 to 1876.7 mm in 2012. July was the wettest month, receiving an average of 312.34 mm, while January and December received only 17.26 and 16.98 mm, respectively. At 75% probability, rainfall was absent during Weeks 1–14 and 41–52, indicating a prolonged dry period. Estimated runoff was concentrated mainly during Weeks 15–40. The accumulated runoff available for storage was estimated at 233.54 ha-m, of which approximately 151.80 ha-m was considered effective after accounting for 35% losses. The proposed cropping plan covered 175 ha and included rice and soybean in Kharif, mustard, beans, pea and onion in Rabi, and maize and potato in Zaid. Three water-harvesting ponds were proposed for storing runoff for non-monsoon irrigation.

Conclusion: Vihokhu watershed has considerable potential for integrated rainfall-runoff management. Harvesting monsoon runoff and storing it for dry-season irrigation can support multi-season cropping and improve utilisation of available water resources.

Assessment of Nutrient Dynamics under Integrated Application of Inorganic, Organic and Biofertilizers in Red Loam Soil

Ili Venkatesh, Krishna Chaitanya Anantha, B. Raju, P. Revathi — Thu, 17 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Integrated nutrient management (INM) was evaluated through a 60-day incubation experiment using red loam soil to assess temporal changes in available nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), and sulphur (S). Soil samples were incubated with combinations of recommended or soil test-based inorganic fertiliser, farmyard manure (FYM), and a biofertiliser consortium, with sampling at 15, 30, 45, and 60 days after incubation (DAI). The treatments produced distinct nutrient-release patterns over time. Available N generally increased up to 30 DAI under sole inorganic fertilisation, whereas treatments combining inorganic fertilisers with FYM and biofertilisers maintained the increase up to 45 DAI before a slight decline. Available P increased up to 45 DAI in most treatments and then declined at 60 DAI, with higher values under treatments integrating FYM and the biofertiliser consortium. Available K increased continuously throughout the 60-day incubation period, particularly under integrated treatments. Available S increased during the early-to-mid incubation period and was generally higher under integrated or soil test-based nutrient treatments than under the control, with treatment-dependent declines later in the incubation. Overall, combining inorganic, organic, and biological nutrient sources influenced the timing and persistence of nutrient availability in red loam soil. These findings characterise the time-dependent release of major nutrients under controlled incubation conditions.

Agronomic Performance of Rice–Wheat Intercropping in an Upland Area of the Bouaké Region, Central Côte d’Ivoire

Koné Aminata, Sanogo Souleymane, Brahima Koné, Boli BI Tié Jean Luc — Thu, 17 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

In the context of climate change, innovative rice-based cropping systems represent a sustainable approach to improving agricultural productivity. Given the reduction in cultivable land and declining soil fertility, assessing the effects of intercropping under different fertilisation regimes is essential in order to improve yield potential and eco-efficiency in rice–wheat cropping systems in Côte d’Ivoire. Accordingly, the agronomic performance of rice–wheat intercropping and of each crop grown as a monoculture was evaluated using a split-plot experimental design with three replications. Four treatments were tested: an absolute control without input (T2), a Costus–Kaolin–Polifol biofertiliser combination (T1), a combination of conventional fertilisers (NPK and 46% N urea) with Costus–Kaolin biofertilisers (T3), and conventional fertilisers alone, consisting of NPK and 46% N urea (T4). The number of tillers, percentages of insect and bird damage to rice, straw biomass, daily productivity, and grain yield per hectare were measured. The area time equivalent ratio (ATER), grain and straw yields, and harvest index (HI) were also determined.

The results showed that the intercropping system significantly increased rice grain yield, with 2.4 t/ha under intercropping compared with 1.5 t/ha under monoculture. Conversely, wheat achieved its highest grain yield under monoculture, with 1.5 t/ha compared with 0.7 t/ha under intercropping. Treatment T3 was the most effective across the cropping systems. System daily productivity (P = 31 kg/ha/day) and an ATER greater than 1 confirmed the agronomic advantage of rice–wheat intercropping.

Crop Proportion and Fertility Management Influence Canopy Development and Productivity of Pearl Millet-Green Gram Intercropping

Fri, 18 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

A field experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of pearl millet-green gram intercropping proportion and graded fertility levels on crop growth, physiological traits and productivity of the component crops. The experiment was laid out in a split-plot design with three replications and comprised four intercropping treatments in the main plots, viz., sole pearl millet, sole green gram, pearl millet + green gram in 2:1 and 2:2 row proportions, and five fertility levels in the subplots (control, 50% recommended dose of fertiliser (RDF), 75% RDF, 100% RDF and 125% RDF). Growth and yield data collected according to standard procedures were subjected to analysis of variance. The results revealed that intercropping significantly influenced pearl millet plant population, leaf area index (LAI), chlorophyll content, tillers plant^-1 and grain yield. Pearl millet grain yield was highest under sole cropping (1997 kg ha^-1) and declined to 1809 and 1551 kg ha^-1 under 2:1 and 2:2 intercropping, respectively. Green gram grain yield was 953 kg ha^-1 under sole cropping and 308 and 455 kg ha^-1 under 2:1 and 2:2 intercropping, respectively. In contrast, increasing fertility progressively enhanced canopy development, chlorophyll content and yield attributes of both crops. Pearl millet grain yield increased from 1440 kg ha^-1 under the control to 2020 kg ha^-1 under 125% RDF, while green gram yield increased from 466 to 632 kg ha^-1. However, grain yield at 100% RDF (1955 kg ha^-1 in pearl millet and 620 kg ha^-1 in green gram) was statistically comparable with that at 125% RDF. The competition ratio indicated greater competitive ability of pearl millet than green gram, although increasing the green gram proportion from 2:1 to 2:2 improved its competitive position. Overall, crop proportion regulated the competitive balance and component-crop productivity, whereas fertility primarily improved crop growth and yield formation.

Weed Management Effects on Yield and Nutrient Uptake in Tomato: A Two-Year Field Study

Sat, 19 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Weed competition is a major constraint to productivity and nutrient acquisition in tomato production, where non-chemical weed-management options are important. A two-year field experiment was conducted during the kharif seasons of 2022-23 and 2023-24 at the AICRP on Weed Management Block, College Farm, Professor Jayashankar Telangana Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, to evaluate weed-management practices to improve tomato yield and N, P and K acquisition. The experiment used a randomised block design with three replications and nine treatments: live mulch with dhaincha, stale seedbed, polyethene mulch, rice-straw mulch, hoeing, fenugreek intercropping, tamarind-leaf aqueous extract, an unweeded control and a metribuzin-based chemical benchmark. Weed-management practices significantly affected fruit yield, nutrient concentration and nutrient uptake in both seasons. The chemical benchmark (T₉) recorded the highest fruit yields, 234.3 and 244.3 q ha^-¹ in 2022 and 2023, respectively. Among the non-chemical treatments, polyethene mulch plus intra-row hand weeding at 30 days after transplanting (DAT) (T₃) recorded 213.4 and 208.2 q ha^-1, followed by rice-straw mulch @ 5 t ha^-1 plus intra-row hand weeding at 30 DAT (T₄), which produced 190.4 and 184.7 q ha^-1. T3 also recorded the highest N, P and K uptake among the non-chemical treatments in both seasons, with 40.62, 8.12 and 47.39 kg ha^-1, respectively, in 2022 and 40.19, 8.04 and 46.89 kg ha^-1 in 2023. The results indicated that polyethene mulch combined with timely intra-row hand weeding was the most productive non-chemical treatment. In contrast, rice-straw mulch plus hand weeding provides a residue-based option where suitable residues and labour are locally available.

Bio-efficacy of Propaquizafop 10% EC on Weeds and Yield in Soybean

Sat, 19 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

A field experiment was conducted during kharif 2018 at the Experimental Farm, College of Agriculture, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, to evaluate the bio-efficacy and phytotoxicity of Propaquizafop 10% EC in soybean and its residual effect on succeeding mustard. The experiment was laid out in a randomised block design with seven treatments and three replications. Propaquizafop 10% EC was applied post-emergence at different doses, and weed populations, weed dry weight, weed control efficiency, soybean growth and yield, soil biological properties, and residual effects on mustard were assessed. Propaquizafop 10% EC at 750 ml ha⁻¹ consistently reduced the density and dry weight of major grassy weeds and recorded high weed control efficiency. This treatment produced a soybean grain yield of 2265 kg ha⁻¹, compared with 867 kg ha⁻¹ in the unweeded check, while hand weeding at 20 and 40 days after sowing produced the highest grain yield of 2456 kg ha⁻¹. No phytotoxic symptoms were observed at the tested doses. The measured bacterial and actinomycetes populations did not show pronounced adverse changes at harvest. The succeeding mustard crop showed no residual phytotoxicity, and germination, plant height and seed yield did not differ significantly among treatments. Under the conditions of this study, Propaquizafop 10% EC at 750 ml ha⁻¹ provided effective grassy-weed control while maintaining soybean crop safety and showing no evident adverse residual effect on the succeeding mustard crop.

Long-term Nutrient Management Influences the Vertical Distribution of DTPA-Extractable Micronutrients in a Vertisol under Soybean-Wheat Cropping System

Indar Raj Naga, B. K. Dixit, B. S. Dwivedi, R. K. Sahu, R. K. Thakur — Mon, 21 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Long-term nutrient management plays an important role in maintaining soil micronutrient fertility under continuous cropping. The present study evaluated the effect of long-term fertiliser and manure application on the vertical distribution of DTPA-extractable Zn, Cu, Mn and Fe in a Vertisol under a soybean-wheat cropping system during 2024-25 at the AICRP-LTFE experimental farm, JNKVV, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India. The long-term experiment was initiated in 1972 and comprised nine nutrient-management treatments, including graded NPK levels, nutrient omission treatments, NPK + Zn, NPK + FYM, sulphur-free NPK and an unfertilised control, and was arranged in a randomised block design with three replications. Soil samples were collected after wheat harvest from six depths (0-15, 15-30, 30-45, 45-60, 60-75 and 75-90 cm) and analysed for DTPA-extractable micronutrients. All four micronutrients showed clear treatment- and depth-dependent variation, with concentrations generally declining with increasing soil depth. At 0-15 cm, DTPA-Zn, Cu, Mn and Fe ranged from 0.24-1.03, 0.90-1.83, 10.97-17.11 and 13.61-28.35 mg kg^-1, respectively, compared with 0.10-0.46, 0.46-0.84, 3.78-8.87 and 4.37-9.13 mg kg^-1 at 75-90 cm. The 100% NPK + Zn treatment recorded the highest Zn concentration, whereas 100% NPK + FYM maintained the highest Cu, Mn and Fe concentrations across the soil profile. The 150% NPK treatment also maintained high Mn and Fe and was at par with NPK + FYM at 60-75 cm. In contrast, the control consistently recorded the lowest concentrations. The results demonstrate that balanced fertilisation, particularly when integrated with FYM, is effective in sustaining micronutrient fertility and improving the vertical distribution of extractable micronutrients in long-term soybean-wheat cultivation on Vertisol.

Correlation and Path Analysis in Coriander Genotypes for Yield and Yield Attributing Traits

Mon, 21 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

A field experiment was conducted at the Instructional-cum-Research Farm of the Horticulture Section, Rajarshee Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj Government College of Agriculture, Kolhapur, to assess associations among yield and yield-attributing traits in 25 coriander genotypes. The experiment was laid out in a Randomised Block Design with two replications. Genotypic and phenotypic correlation coefficients and path coefficients were estimated for fresh weight per plant and related traits. Fresh weight per plant showed positive associations with plant height, length of main stem, leaf length, number of leaves per plant, number of branches per plant, stem girth and foliage yield at both genotypic and phenotypic levels, whereas days to harvest showed a negative association. Plant height and length of main stem displayed particularly strong positive associations with fresh weight per plant. Path coefficient analysis showed that stem girth had the highest positive direct effect on fresh weight per plant (0.66784), followed by foliage yield (0.62847) and number of leaves per plant (0.47148). Plant height (−0.26610), length of main stem (−0.53267) and days to harvest (−0.21320) showed negative direct effects. The residual effect was 0.1244, indicating that the traits included in the analysis accounted for most of the observed variation. These findings suggest that stem girth, foliage yield and number of leaves per plant may be useful selection criteria for improving fresh weight per plant under the conditions of the present experiment.

Sustainable Weed Management Practices in Growth and Yield of Soybean (Glycine max L.)

Tue, 22 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Soybean productivity is substantially affected by weed competition, particularly during the early stages of crop growth when weeds compete for essential resources. Effective and sustainable weed-management strategies are therefore important for reducing weed interference and improving soybean growth and yield performance. An experiment was conducted during the kharif season of 2025-26 at the College Farm, School of Agricultural Sciences, G H Raisoni University, Saikheda, PM, to evaluate sustainable weed-management practices in soybean (Glycine max L.). The experiment was laid out in a randomised block design with three replications. The evaluated treatments comprised post-emergence quizalofop-p-ethyl; pendimethalin followed by imazethapyr, fenoxaprop-p-ethyl, quizalofop-p-ethyl, or halosulfuron; pendimethalin followed by hand weeding or wheel-hoe weeding; a weed-free treatment involving hand weeding at 20 and 40 DAS; and a weedy check. Observations were recorded on crop growth and yield-attributing characters. Plant height and plant dry-matter accumulation did not differ significantly among treatments at 30 DAS, but treatment effects became significant at later growth stages. The weed-free treatment consistently produced the greatest plant height and dry-matter accumulation, while several integrated weed-management treatments were statistically comparable for selected observations. The weed-free treatment also recorded the highest number of filled pods, total pods, and seeds per pod, whereas the weedy check generally showed poorer growth and reproductive performance. The number of unfilled pods and 100-seed weight were not significantly affected by the treatments. Overall, sustained weed suppression during critical crop-growth stages improved soybean growth and important yield-attributing characters under the conditions of the experiment.

Effect of Textile Wastewater Irrigation on Heavy Metals Accumulation in Post-harvest Soils

Monoara Begum, Md. Nasimul Gani, Md. Didar-ul-Alam — Tue, 22 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Textile wastewater is used as an alternative irrigation source where freshwater is limited, but repeated application may alter soil heavy-metal status. This study evaluated heavy-metal accumulation in post-harvest soils under a vegetables-jute-T. Aman crop rotation at the Bangladesh Jute Research Institute, Central Station, Dhaka. Six treatments were evaluated: T1 control, T2 sole RDF plus freshwater, and T3–T6 50% RDF combined with 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% textile wastewater, respectively. Post-harvest soil samples were collected after each crop, digested using aqua regia and H₂O₂, and analysed for Zn, Cu, Ni, Fe, Cd, Cr, Pb, and Mn by flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Heavy-metal concentrations generally increased with increasing textile wastewater concentration, and the highest values were consistently observed in T6. Under T6, concentrations of Zn, Cu, Ni, Fe, Cd, Cr, Pb, and Mn were 30.31, 0.93, 24.74, 239.55, 0.255, 34.03, 33.79, and 2.80 ppm after jute cultivation and 38.20, 1.79, 36.22, 303.70, 0.345, 41.15, 40.22, and 6.00 ppm after red amaranth cultivation, respectively. The results indicate progressive accumulation of the measured metals across the studied crop sequence under 100% textile wastewater irrigation. Regular monitoring of wastewater quality and post-harvest soil metal concentrations is therefore warranted when textile wastewater is considered for irrigation.

Influence of Sub-surface Drip Irrigation on Nitrogen Dynamics and Partitioning in Different Plant Parts under Conservation Agriculture-based Cereal Systems

Tue, 22 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Intensive cereal-based cropping systems (rice-maize-wheat-mungbean) in North-West India face challenges from inefficient flood irrigation, leading to nitrogen (N) losses via leaching, volatilization and denitrification, which reduce nitrogen use efficiency (NUE). Conservation agriculture (CA) practices like zero tillage and residue retention, combined with sub-surface drip irrigation (SSDI), offer potential to optimize N dynamics by targeting delivery to the root zone. For this study ongoing experiment of CIMMYT (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre) – ICAR-CSSRI (Indian Council of Agricultural Research-Central Soil Salinity Research Institute) strategic research platform, located at ICAR-CSSRI, Karnal with geographic coordinates of 29◦42′′ 20.7′ N toward latitude, 76◦57′′19.79′ E toward longitude and at an elevation of 243 m above mean sea level, Haryana, India was investigated. The objective of this study was evaluate impact of sub-surface drip irrigation (SSDI) versus flood irrigation on soil Nitrogen (NH₄⁺-N and NO₃⁻-N) distribution under six cropping scenarios (Sc): Sc1—conventional puddled transplanted rice (TPR) followed by conventional tilled (CT) wheat with residue removal; Sc2—TPR followed by zero-till (ZT) wheat and ZT-mungbean with partial residue retention; Sc3—direct-seeded rice (DSR) followed by ZT-wheat and ZT-mungbean with full residue retention; Sc4—ZT-maize replacing DSR, followed by ZT-wheat and ZT-mungbean; Sc5— direct-seeded rice (DSR) followed by ZT-wheat and ZT-mungbean with full residue retention integrated with sub-surface drip irrigation (SSDI) and Sc6— ZT-maize replacing DSR, followed by ZT-wheat and ZT-mungbean , respectively and across depths (0-5, 5-15, 15-30, 30-50, 50-75, 75-100 cm). SSDI maintained higher soil moisture (25-35%) and ammonical and nitrate nitrogen (NH₄⁺/NO₃⁻-N) concentrations The CA practices increased ammonium (NH₄⁺-N) and nitrate (NO₃⁻-N) concentrations at surface soil depths. In CA-based rice and maize systems, SSDI showed higher NH₄⁺/NO₃⁻-N at 15-30 cm during the first observation compared to flood irrigation minimizing deep leaching. However, under wheat, surface soils exhibited elevated NH₄⁺/ NO₃⁻-N under both irrigation systems. Wheat leaves showed higher nitrogen concentration under SSDI compared to flood irrigation, while stems exhibited greater N under flood systems. Roots displayed significantly higher N concentration in the rice-wheat-mungbean + SSDI than in the maize-wheat-mungbean + SSDI system. Overall, maize-wheat-mungbean system under SSDI performed better in terms of NUE and system productivity.

Effect of Organo-mineral Fertilization on Phenological Development, Growth, and Yield of Maize under Experimental Station Conditions

Fri, 25 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the major cereal crops grown in Senegal. However, maize yields remain low due to poor soil fertility and inadequate nutrient management. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of combined organic and mineral fertilisation on maize (Zea mays L.) growth and yield. The study was conducted during the rainy season at the experimental station of the Department of Plant Protection in Tambacounda. A randomised complete block design was used, comprising eight treatments replicated three times. The treatments included an absolute control, NPK fertiliser alone, cattle manure, sheep manure, poultry manure, and combinations of NPK with cattle manure, sheep manure, and poultry manure in equal proportions (50/50). The results showed that poultry manure-based treatments significantly improved plant height, whereas mineral NPK fertiliser resulted in the highest number of leaves (12.44). The combination of poultry manure and NPK resulted in earlier female flowering at 49 days after sowing (DAS). This treatment also produced superior ear and grain weights compared with sheep and cattle manure. The 1,000-grain weight and maize biomass improved significantly, by 47% and 98%, respectively, compared with the absolute control. These results indicate that combining poultry manure with mineral NPK fertiliser can enhance maize growth, phenological development, and productivity under rainfed conditions in the Tambacounda region.

Integrated Microdosing Selected Basal Fertilizers and Lime Modulates Fungal and Bacterial Populations in Acidic Soils under Maize Production in the Meru Highland, Kenya

Sat, 26 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

The biological component of soil health, particularly bacteria and fungi, plays a central role in organic matter decomposition, nutrient cycling and mineralization, thereby contributing to the maintenance of soil fertility and overall soil functioning. However, continuous cultivation, inadequate nutrient replenishment and inappropriate fertilizer management can lead to soil degradation. Soil acidification can further constrain biological functioning by reducing microbial activity, increasing aluminium toxicity and limiting the availability of essential nutrients. Addressing these challenges requires integrated, resource-efficient soil management approaches that enhance soil fertility, support biological functioning and promote environmental sustainability. The combined use of mineral fertilizers, lime and farmyard manure (FYM), together with efficient nutrient placement through microdosing, may provide an effective approach for improving soil chemical and biological conditions. Information on the effects of fertilizer and lime microdosing on soil microbial populations, particularly bacteria and fungi, in strongly acidic maize-growing soils of the Kenyan highlands remains limited. A two-season field experiment was conducted from October 2024-January 2025 and March-July 2025 using a randomized complete block design arranged in a split-plot layout with three replications. The main-plot factor comprised microdosing (MD; 75% of recommended fertilizer and lime rates) and no microdosing (NMD; 100%), while the subplots comprised eighteen (18) fertilizer and lime treatments involving DAP, NPK 23:23:0, calcite lime, dolomitic lime, FYM, their combinations and a control, replicated three times, giving 108 experimental units. Under no microdosing (NMD), all inputs were applied once at 100% of the recommended rates: 10 t FYM ha⁻¹, 141.3 kg DAP ha⁻¹, 282.6 kg NPK ha⁻¹ and 0.3 t ha⁻¹ of either calcite or dolomitic lime. Under microdosing (MD), inputs were applied at 75% of the recommended rates: 7.5 t FYM ha⁻¹, 106.0 kg DAP ha⁻¹, 212.0 kg NPK ha⁻¹ and 0.225 t ha⁻¹ of either calcite or dolomitic lime. Soil sampling and analysis were conducted before the experiment and after each cropping season. Culturable fungal and bacterial populations were determined using the serial dilution and spread-plate method and expressed as colony-forming units (CFU) g⁻¹ soil. Data were log₁₀-transformed before pooled split-plot ANOVA, and significant means were separated using Tukey's Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) test at 5%. Pooled analysis of variance showed that microdosing significantly affected both fungal and bacterial populations (P < 0.01), while the microdosing × treatment interaction was also highly significant for both fungal and bacterial populations (P < 0.001). The highest fungal population was recorded under MD with calcite + NPK 23:23:0 + FYM, with 1.36 × 10⁷ CFU g⁻¹ soil (Log₁₀ = 7.134) in Season 1 and 1.41 × 10⁷ CFU g⁻¹ soil (Log₁₀ = 7.149) in Season 2. These values were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than the corresponding NMD treatment, which recorded 1.28 × 10⁷ CFU g⁻¹ soil (Log₁₀ = 7.107) and 1.33 × 10⁷ CFU g⁻¹ soil (Log₁₀ = 7.124) in Seasons 1 and 2, respectively. The highest bacterial populations were similarly recorded under MD with calcite + NPK 23:23:0 + FYM, reaching 1.89 × 10⁸ CFU g⁻¹ soil (Log₁₀ = 8.276) in Season 1 and 1.95 × 10⁸ CFU g⁻¹ soil (Log₁₀ = 8.289) in Season 2. These were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than the corresponding NMD values of 1.81 × 10⁸ CFU g⁻¹ soil (Log₁₀ = 8.258) and 1.84 × 10⁸ CFU g⁻¹ soil (Log₁₀ = 8.264), respectively. The controls consistently recorded the lowest microbial populations. For fungi, the MD and NMD controls recorded 3.97 × 10⁶ and 4.00 × 10⁶ CFU g⁻¹ soil (Log₁₀ = 6.598 and 6.602) in Season 1 and 4.00 × 10⁶ and 4.07 × 10⁶ CFU g⁻¹ soil (Log₁₀ = 6.602 and 6.609) in Season 2 with the two control treatments reported as statistically similar (P < 0.05). The results demonstrate that combining microdosing with calcite, NPK 23:23:0 and FYM enhanced culturable fungal and bacterial populations compared with both the corresponding NMD treatment and the untreated controls. The improved microbial populations were likely associated with localized nutrient supply, organic carbon addition and amelioration of soil acidity. Microdosing therefore has potential to improve nutrient use efficiency while creating favourable conditions for soil microbial proliferation in acidic maize growing soils.

Morphological Growth and Biomass Allocation Responses of Acacia auriculiformis Seedlings to Varying Watering Intervals

Pritam Kumar Barman, Afaq Majid Wani — Sat, 26 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Water availability strongly influences early seedling establishment and nursery performance. This study examines how varying watering intervals affect the morphological growth and biomass allocation of Acacia auriculiformis seedlings under controlled nursery conditions. Over 13 weeks, seedlings were watered at five different frequencies: daily and every 4, 8, 12, and 16 days. The research focused strictly on physical growth patterns rather than physiological responses to drought intensity. Results showed that extended watering intervals consistently stunted above-ground development; average shoot length dropped from 60.25 cm in the daily control group to just 18.69 cm under the 16-day interval. However, a four-day watering interval stimulated below-ground growth. These seedlings achieved a maximum root length of 29.43 cm and a total plant biomass of 9.42 gm, outperforming the daily-watered control. This adaptive growth strategy was further supported by a significantly lower shoot-to-root ratio during the 4-day and 8-day intervals. The data indicated that the seedlings actively redirected biomass to their root systems to cope with moderate water stress before the severe growth declines observed at the 12-day and 16-day intervals.

Effect of Organic Manures and Biofertilizers on Growth and Yield of Herbage Amaranthus (Amaranthus tricolor L.)

Anmol Dwivedi, Abdul Shamad, Shailendra Kumar Singh — Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

The present investigation was conducted during the kharif season of 2026 at the Horticulture Research Farm, Department of Horticulture, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences (SHUATS), Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh. The experimental site was located at 25.57° N latitude and 81.05° E longitude, at an altitude of 98 m above mean sea level. The experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of different organic manures and biofertilizers on the growth, yield attributes, herbage yield, and economic performance of amaranthus. The soil of the experimental field was medium black, well drained, and suitable for vegetable cultivation. The experiment was laid out in a Randomised Block Design (RBD) using different combinations of organic manures and biofertilizers. The treatments consisted of farmyard manure (FYM), vermicompost, poultry manure, biofertilizers (Azotobacter + PSB), and their combinations. Among all treatments, T₈ (FYM @ 10 t ha⁻¹ + vermicompost @ 2.5 t ha⁻¹ + Azotobacter + PSB) exhibited the best performance and recorded significantly higher growth and yield parameters than the other treatments and the control. The application of T₈ (FYM @ 10 t/ha + vermicompost @ 2.5 t/ha + Azotobacter + PSB) resulted in the maximum plant height (42.97 cm), number of leaves per plant (47.27), number of branches per plant (6.03), plant spread (38.41 cm²), and leaf length (13.51 cm), and the minimum number of days to first clipping (39 days). The maximum spike length (11.76 cm) was observed in T₈. The highest herbage yield was also recorded with T₈ (FYM @ 10 t/ha + vermicompost @ 2.5 t/ha + Azotobacter + PSB), producing 144.88 g plant⁻¹, 12.75 kg plot⁻¹, and 318.74 q ha⁻¹, whereas the control treatment recorded the lowest herbage yield of 39.58 g plant⁻¹, 3.48 kg plot⁻¹, and 87.08 q ha⁻¹. The maximum benefit-cost ratio (2.92:1) was recorded in treatment T6 (vermicompost @ 5 t/ha + Azotobacter + PSB). These findings indicate that the combined application of farmyard manure, vermicompost, and biofertilizers improved vegetative growth and herbage production under the agro-climatic conditions of Prayagraj. The treatment response observed in this study supports the use of integrated organic nutrient management for amaranthus production under comparable field conditions.

Contrasting Temporal Dynamics of Iron and Aluminium under Prolonged Submergence of an Acidic Paddy Soil in Lower Kuttanad, Kerala, India

Mon, 28 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Submergence induces major changes in the chemical environment of paddy soils and can alter the mobility of redox- and pH-sensitive elements. The present study characterised the temporal dynamics of soil acidity and iron (Fe) and aluminium (Al) fractions during 90 days of continuous submergence in an acidic paddy soil of Lower Kuttanad, Kerala, India. A 40 m² field area was maintained under continuous submergence and soil samples were collected from 0–15 and 15–30 cm depths at 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75 and 90 days after submergence, together with concurrent floodwater samples. Soil pH, electrical conductivity, potential acidity, cation exchange capacity, HCl-extractable Fe and Al, water-soluble Fe and Al, and total Fe and Al were determined, while floodwater pH, EC, total Fe and total Al were analysed. Soil pH increased during the initial and middle stages of submergence, whereas potential acidity declined. Reactive Fe fractions increased, with HCl-extractable Fe reaching 733.00 and 883.50 mg kg⁻¹ at 75 days in the 0–15 and 15–30 cm layers, respectively. In contrast, HCl-extractable and water-soluble Al declined progressively, while total Fe and Al showed comparatively limited temporal variation. Floodwater Fe increased from 11.43 to 15.30 mg L⁻¹ by 75 days, whereas floodwater Al declined from 5.56 to 0.43 mg L⁻¹ by 90 days. The contrasting Fe and Al responses indicate that partial alleviation of soil acidity under prolonged submergence was accompanied by reduced Al mobility but enhanced mobilisation of reactive Fe. The observations provide a temporal baseline for understanding Fe–Al partitioning in submerged acidic soils of Lower Kuttanad and for designing replicated studies on the timing and management of amelioration.

Assessing the Impact of Tillage Practices and Organic Manures on the Growth and Productivity of Cotton in Vertisols

M. D. Thite, S. M. Bhoyar, N. M. Konde, S. D. Jadhao, Akanksha Singh, V. V. Goud — Tue, 29 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

A field experiment was conducted during Kharif 2023 at the Research Farm of the Department of Soil Science, Dr Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola, to evaluate the effects of different tillage practices and organic manure applications on the growth and productivity of cotton cultivated in Vertisols. The experiment was laid out in a factorial randomised block design comprising four tillage treatments, namely conventional tillage, reduced tillage, minimum tillage and zero tillage, in combination with four organic manure treatments: farmyard manure at 10 t ha⁻¹, vermicompost at 5 t ha⁻¹, phosphocompost at 5 t ha⁻¹ and an untreated control without manure application.Plant height, branches, squares, bolls, root characteristics, seed cotton yield, and stalk yield were evaluated. Conventional tillage generally produced the greatest plant height, reproductive growth, root development, seed cotton yield, and stalk yield, whereas zero tillage recorded the lowest values. Farmyard manure produced the greatest plant height, while phosphocompost showed favourable effects on branching, square and boll formation, root growth, and yield. Conventional tillage produced a seed cotton yield of 14.10 q ha⁻¹ and a stalk yield of 27.78 q ha⁻¹. Among organic manure treatments, phosphocompost produced mean seed cotton and stalk yields of 11.25 and 22.07 q ha⁻¹, respectively. Significant interaction effects were observed for plant height, squares, bolls, seed cotton yield, and stalk yield, whereas interactions for branch number, root length, and root volume were non-significant. These findings demonstrate that tillage and organic manure management substantially influenced cotton performance under the Vertisol conditions evaluated.

Effect of Different Treatments on Composting of Turmeric Leaves: Compost Maturity, C: N Ratio and Microbial Population

A. D. Patil, D. S. Potdar, V. N. Nale — Tue, 29 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

An experiment was conducted to standardize the composting process for turmeric leaves using various decomposing cultures and nutrients at the Agricultural Research Station, Kasabe Digraj, Sangli, Maharashtra, during 2025. The experiment comprised seven treatments with three replications arranged in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD). Turmeric leaves were composted with FYM, MPKV decomposing culture, Pusa decomposer, and nutrients (urea and single super phosphate), applied separately and in combinations. Temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, total organic carbon, total nitrogen, C:N ratio, compost recovery, and maturity period were recorded during composting. The C:N ratio decreased progressively in all treatments and reached 13.14-19.85 at 120 days. Among the treatments, T₇ (turmeric leaves + FYM + Pusa decomposer + urea + SSP) reached maturity in the shortest time (78.77 days), followed by T₄ (83.02 days), whereas T₂ took the longest time (119.84 days). T₇ recorded the maximum compost recovery (45.43%), followed by T₄ (45.13%). Bacterial, fungal, and actinomycete populations increased during the active composting phase, with T₇ generally recording higher populations, followed by T₄, before declining towards maturity. It was concluded that the combination of FYM, decomposing culture, and nutrients improved the composting and stabilization of turmeric leaves.

Impact of Long-Term Fertilization Practices on Soil Health under Pearl Millet–Mustard Cropping Sequence in the Gird Zone of Madhya Pradesh

Tue, 29 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Aims: To evaluate the long-term impact of integrated nutrient management practices on soil physical and chemical health parameters (bulk density, pH, EC, and available N, P, and K) in surface (0–15 cm) and sub-surface (15–30 cm) soil layers under a pearl millet–mustard cropping sequence in the Gird zone of Madhya Pradesh.

Study Design: Randomised block design (RBD) with 12 treatments and 3 replications.

Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted at the Research Farm, Department of Soil Science, College of Agriculture, Rajmata Vijayaraje Scindia Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya (R.V.S.K.V.V.), Gwalior (M.P.), during 2024–2026, within an ongoing long-term fertiliser experiment initiated in 2002.

Methodology: Soil samples were collected at 0–15 cm and 15–30 cm depths after pearl millet and mustard harvests across 12 fertiliser treatments, ranging from an unfertilised control to 150% NPK, micronutrient additions (Zn and Fe), and FYM combinations with biofertilisers (Azotobacter + PSB). Bulk density was determined using core sampling; pH and EC were measured in 1:2.5 soil-water suspensions; available N was determined using the alkaline permanganate method; available P was determined using Olsen's extractant; and available K was determined by neutral normal ammonium acetate extraction.

Results: The application of 100% NPK + FYM + seed treatment with Azotobacter + PSB (T12) consistently recorded superior soil health indicators. T12 achieved the lowest bulk density (1.29 Mg m⁻³ at 0–15 cm; 1.38 Mg m⁻³ at 15–30 cm) and the highest available N (278.00 and 220.83 kg ha⁻¹), P (28.97 and 22.17 kg ha⁻¹), and K (300.29 and 246.97 kg ha⁻¹) after pearl millet. Similar trends were observed following mustard harvest (N: 272.00 and 214.00 kg ha⁻¹; P: 26.65 and 19.85 kg ha⁻¹; K: 294.14 and 237.77 kg ha⁻¹). The control (T1) and sole inorganic N and NP treatments exhibited higher bulk density and pH, together with severe depletion of available nutrients.

Conclusion: Long-term integrated application of 100% NPK combined with FYM and biofertilisers significantly improves soil physical structure and chemical fertility compared with continuous inorganic or unfertilised management, offering a sustainable nutrient management strategy for the pearl millet–mustard cropping system in the Gird region.

Contribution of Aqueous Extracts of Aloe vera to Improving Tomato Productivity in the Central-Western Region of Côte d’Ivoire

Tue, 29 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Tomato production in Côte d’Ivoire faces a range of constraints, notably soil degradation, which significantly undermines the cropping system and leads to a decline in productivity. This study is underpinned by a commitment to sustainability and aims to compare the effects of aqueous extracts of Aloe vera on the growth and yield of tomatoes in the Daloa region, with a view to proposing an alternative that is environmentally friendly and beneficial to consumer health. To explore sustainable alternatives, aqueous extracts of Aloe vera, applied at different doses, and NPK mineral fertiliser (15 15 15) were evaluated on a plot of 150 tomato plants. The trial was conducted using a randomised complete block design, comprising ten treatments and three replicates. The treatments included different concentrations of gel (25 %, 50 %, 75 % and 100 %) and doses of leaf pulp (15 g, 30 g, 60 g and 100 g), an application of mineral fertiliser, as well as a control without fertilisation. The experiment was conducted at the experimental farm of Jean Lorougnon Guédé University in Daloa. The results showed that aqueous extracts of Aloe vera have positive effects on the vegetative growth of tomatoes, with values higher than those of the control. In particular, treatment with pure gel (100 %) resulted in an average plant height of 86.01 cm compared with 60 cm for the control, a stem diameter of 4.88 cm compared with 3.26 cm, and an average of 30 leaves compared with 17 for the control. Furthermore, yield was significantly improved, reaching approximately 35 t/ha compared with 7 t/ha for the control. Consequently, the use of Aloe vera extracts as a natural fertiliser offers a promising alternative for improving tomato productivity, whilst contributing to more sustainable agriculture.

Suppression of Tomato Leaf Curl Virus in Tomato with Enhanced Growth, Yield and Fruit Quality by Phyllanthus niruri and Boerhavia diffusa under Field Conditions

Tue, 29 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Aims: To evaluate promising antiviral botanicals such as Phyllanthus niruri and Boerhavia diffusa at low concentrations for managing tomato leaf curl disease (ToLCD) in tomato plants under pot culture and field conditions.

Study Design: Sequential pot culture and field experiments were conducted using a completely randomised design (CRD) in pot culture and a randomised block design (RBD) in field studies to evaluate pre- and post-treatment of promising antiviral botanicals for the management of ToLCD.

Place and Duration of Study: Pot experiments were conducted at the College of Agriculture, Vellayani, and field experiments were conducted at the College of Agriculture, Vellayani, and Coconut Research Station, Balaramapuram, Kerala, during summer and rabi seasons in 2023 and 2024.

Methodology: P. niruri and B. diffusa shoot extracts at 0.25, 0.5, 1, 5 and 10 per cent (w/v) were evaluated through pre- and post-application to tomato plants inoculated with tomato leaf curl virus (ToLCV) by wedge grafting using infected scions of disease grade 2. Disease incidence (DI), vulnerability index (VI), virus accumulation, plant growth, chlorophyll content, yield and fruit quality were assessed.

Results: Pre-application of 1 per cent P. niruri reduced DI from 100 to 57.69 per cent and VI from 68.34 to 33.12, representing reductions of 42.31 and 51.54 per cent, respectively, compared with the ToLCV control plants. One per cent B. diffusa reduced DI and VI by 34.62 and 44.02 per cent, respectively. Post-application of 1 per cent P. niruri reduced DI and VI by 34.62 and 41.70 per cent, respectively. One per cent botanical preparations resulted in reductions in DI and VI comparable to those obtained with the 5 and 10 per cent preparations; therefore, 1 per cent was considered practically and economically feasible. Serological and molecular analyses indicated reduced virus accumulation in the treated plants. Under field conditions, pre-application of 1 per cent P. niruri reduced DI by 22.72 and 21.95 per cent and VI by 33.07 and 35.87 per cent during summer and rabi, respectively. Botanical treatments also improved chlorophyll content, growth, yield and fruit quality, with the botanicals increasing the number of fruits per plant by 40.5 per cent compared with the control.

Conclusion: P. niruri and B. diffusa shoot extracts at 1 per cent could significantly reduce the DI and VI of ToLCD and could be used as a potential botanical component in the integrated management of the disease, with pre-application providing greater disease suppression than post-application.

Influence of Different Pre-sowing Seed Treatments on Germination and Seedling Growth of Papaya (Carica papaya L.) cv. Red Lady

Devansh Prakash Saxena, Shiwanand Pandey, Himanshu Trivedi, Vinay Kumar — Tue, 29 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Papaya (Carica papaya L.) seed germination is often slow and uneven, which can limit uniform nursery establishment. The present investigation evaluated the influence of different pre-sowing seed treatments on germination and early seedling growth of papaya cv. Red Lady during 2025 at Chhatrapati Shahu Ji Maharaj University, Kanpur. The experiment was arranged in a Completely Randomized Design with nine treatments and three replications. Seeds were treated with gibberellic acid (GA₃) or naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) at 50 or 100 ppm for 6 or 12 hours and were raised in a vermicompost + cocopeat + soil medium (1:1:1), with an untreated control. Significant treatment effects were observed for all evaluated germination and growth attributes. GA₃ at 100 ppm for 12 hours (T9) produced the earliest first germination (10.00 days), the highest germination percentage (85.47%), Seedling Vigour Index-I (1035) and survival percentage (90.84%). This treatment also recorded the greatest seedling height, number of leaves, girth, leaf area, number of roots and root length at 45 days after sowing, and was closely followed by GA₃ at 100 ppm for 6 hours (T8). The untreated control showed the lowest performance across the measured traits. Under the conditions of this study, pre-sowing treatment with GA₃ at 100 ppm for 12 hours was the most effective treatment for improving germination and early seedling performance of papaya cv. Red Lady.

Molecular and Morpho-cultural Characterization of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Causing Grape Anthracnose

Wed, 30 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) is an economically important fruit crop, and anthracnose can adversely affect vine growth, berry yield, and fruit quality. The present study characterised eleven isolates of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides collected from grape-growing districts of Northern Karnataka using morpho-cultural and molecular approaches. On potato dextrose agar, the isolates showed variation in colony colour, pigmentation, growth pattern, sectoring, conidial dimensions, and sporulation intensity. Colony colour ranged from white-grey to grey-white, and pigmentation varied from light orange to dark brown. Most isolates exhibited fluffy growth with regular margins, while sectoring was observed in Cg-1, Cg-3, Cg-4, Cg-5, and Cg-6. The isolates produced septate, hyaline mycelium and oblong, unicellular conidia with a single oil globule. Mean conidial dimensions ranged from 11.44 × 5.65 µm to 15.81 × 5.81 µm, with sporulation ranging from moderate to excellent. PCR amplification of the internal transcribed spacer region and species-specific markers produced amplicons of approximately 550 bp and 450 bp, respectively. Sequence comparison showed high similarity with reference sequences of C. gloeosporioides. Phylogenetic analysis of three representative isolates placed them within the C. gloeosporioides clade, consistent with the morphological observations and species-specific PCR results. These findings document morpho-cultural variability among the isolates and support their molecular identification as C. gloeosporioides.

Effects of Vermicompost and Seaweed Extract on Growth and Yield of Cauliflower under Semi-arid Conditions

Sat, 03 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

A field experiment was conducted during the rabi season at the Horticultural Research Farm, School of Agricultural Sciences, Nirwan University, Jaipur, Rajasthan, to evaluate the individual and combined effects of vermicompost and seaweed extract on cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis L.) under semi-arid conditions. The experiment was arranged in a factorial randomized block design with three vermicompost levels (0, 2.5 and 5.0 t ha⁻¹) and three seaweed extract concentrations (0, 0.5 and 1.0%), producing nine treatment combinations with three replications. Vermicompost was incorporated before transplanting, whereas seaweed extract was applied as foliar sprays at 30 and 45 days after transplanting. The treatments significantly influenced most measured growth, physiological, yield and economic parameters. The combined treatment T₉ (5.0 t ha⁻¹ vermicompost + 1.0% seaweed extract) recorded the highest plant establishment (95.35%), plant height (60.85 cm), number of leaves (24.35 plant⁻¹), chlorophyll content (52.40 SPAD), dry matter accumulation (64.60 g plant⁻¹), curd diameter (18.75 cm), average curd weight (915.40 g) and marketable yield (365.20 q ha⁻¹). The untreated control recorded the lowest values for the measured traits. Under the experimental conditions, the combined use of vermicompost and seaweed extract was associated with improved cauliflower growth and yield, with T₉ showing the highest overall performance among the tested treatments.

Effect of Spacing and Mulching on Growth and Yield of Field Pea (Pisum sativum L.)

Sat, 03 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Field pea (Pisum sativum L.) is an important legume crop grown for its high protein content and ability to improve soil fertility. Proper agronomic practices such as optimum plant spacing and mulching are essential for improving growth, yield, and profitability of the crop. Keeping this in view, a field experiment was conducted during the rabi season of 2024–25 at the Experimental Farm of Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyay Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Utlou, Manipur, to study, “Effect of spacing and mulching on growth and yield of field pea (Pisum sativum L.)” The experiment was laid out in a Factorial Randomized Block Design of 9(nine) treatments, containing three levels of spacing and three levels of mulching i.e. T1(S1M1): 20x10cm + no mulch, T2(S1M2): 20x10cm + rice husk mulch, T3(S1M3): 20x10cm + saw dust, T4(S2M1): 30x10cm + no mulch, T5(S2M2): 30x10cm + rice husk, T6(S2M3): 30x10cm + saw dust, T7(S3M1): 40x10cm + no mulch, T8(S3M2): 40x10cm + rice husk, T9(S3M3): 40x10cm + saw dust. The pea variety ‘Rachna’ was used for the study. Observations were recorded on growth parameters, yield attributes, yield, and economics. The results revealed that wider spacing of (40 × 10 cm) (S3) significantly improved growth parameters such as plant height(cm), number of branches, fresh and dry weight(g/plant) and number of nodules per plant. Among mulching treatments, rice husk mulch (M2) performed better than saw dust and no mulch by improving plant growth and yield attributes. The interaction effect showed that the combination of (40 × 10 cm) spacing with rice husk mulch produced the best overall performance in terms of growth and (30 x 10 cm) with rice husk (S2M2) in terms of yield parameter such as number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, pod length(cm), stover yield(q/ha) as well as harvest index (%). From the present study, it can be concluded that adopting wider spacing along with rice husk mulching is beneficial for improving the growth, yield, and economics of field pea under the agro- climatic conditions of Manipur.

Response of Different Sowing Dates on Growth and Yield of Different Cultivars of Field Pea (Pisum sativum L.)

Mon, 05 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Field pea (Pisum sativum L.) productivity is influenced by sowing time and cultivar selection. The present study evaluated the response of three field pea cultivars to three sowing dates under the agro-climatic conditions of Utlou, Manipur, during the 2024–2025 Rabi season. The experiment was conducted at the Research Farm of Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyay Institute of Agricultural Sciences using a factorial randomised block design with nine treatment combinations and three replications. The sowing dates were 30 December 2024, 10 January 2025, and 20 January 2025, while the cultivars were Rachna, Prakash, and Aman. Growth and yield attributes were recorded during crop development and at harvest. Sowing on 30 December produced the highest mean plant height at harvest (57.27 cm) and grain yield (13.56 q/ha), whereas sowing on 20 January produced the lowest corresponding values of 52.23 cm and 11.66 q/ha. Among the cultivars, Aman recorded the highest plant height at harvest (61.37 cm) and grain yield (13.82 q/ha). The interaction between sowing date and cultivar was also significant. The 30 December × Aman combination recorded the highest grain yield (14.87 q/ha), while the 20 January × Prakash combination recorded the lowest yield (10.56 q/ha). These results indicate that earlier sowing, particularly with Aman, was associated with improved field pea growth and yield under the conditions of the study.

Influence of Different Composting Treatments on the Quality of Turmeric Leaves Compost

Mon, 05 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of different composting treatments on the quality of compost prepared from turmeric leaves at the Agricultural Research Station, Kasabe Digraj, Sangli, Maharashtra, during 2025. Seven treatments, with three replications, were evaluated in a Completely Randomised Design (CRD). Turmeric leaves were composted with FYM, MPKV decomposing culture, Pusa Decomposer and nutrient amendments (urea and SSP), separately and in combinations. Mature compost was analysed for moisture, pH, electrical conductivity, total organic carbon, C:N ratio, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, iron, manganese, zinc and copper. Significant differences among treatments were recorded for moisture, EC, TOC, C:N ratio and macro- and micronutrient contents, whereas pH did not differ significantly. The moisture content ranged from 20.11 to 23.57%, EC from 1.28 to 2.14 dS m⁻¹, TOC from 22.74 to 31.17% and C:N ratio from 13.14 to 19.85. Treatment T₇ (turmeric leaves + FYM + Pusa Decomposer + urea + SSP) recorded the highest N (1.73%), P (0.58%), K (2.12%) and S (0.77%) contents, along with Fe (3513 mg kg⁻¹), Mn (361.30 mg kg⁻¹), Zn (163.98 mg kg⁻¹) and Cu (44.62 mg kg⁻¹). The lowest C:N ratio (13.14) and shortest maturity period (78.77 days) were also recorded in T₇, whereas T₂ required the longest period (119.84 days) to reach maturity. All treatments were within the specified FCO limits for the measured quality parameters. It was concluded that the combined application of FYM, decomposing culture and nutrient amendments improved the nutrient composition and accelerated the stabilisation of turmeric leaf compost.

Effects of Applying Different Compounds from a Poultry Manure-based Compost on the Agro-morphological Parameters of Chili Peppers (Capsicum chinense)

Kouadio Emile Yoboué, Bi Trazié Jérémie Gala, Adama Kone — Wed, 07 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of three poultry manure-based compost formulations on the growth and yield of chilli pepper (Capsicum chinense). A Fisher randomised complete block design was established with four treatments and four replicates from August to November 2022. The treatments comprised an unfertilised control (T0), direct application of solid compost (T1), and aqueous compost leachates collected after 5 days (T2) and 10 days (T3) of soaking in water. Plant survival, height, collar diameter, vigour index, and yield were assessed. Fourteen days after transplanting, survival rates were 75.00%, 94.53%, 85.15%, and 88.28% under T0, T1, T2, and T3, respectively. Plant height, collar diameter, and vigour index increased throughout the measurement period, with the strongest overall responses observed under T1. At 77 days after transplanting, plant height reached 46.49 cm under T1, compared with 42.24 cm under T2, 43.41 cm under T3, and 38.41 cm under T0. Yield was highest under T1 at 0.45 kg/plant (8.5 t/ha), followed by T3 at 0.38 kg/plant (6.8 t/ha), T2 at 0.35 kg/plant (6.1 t/ha), and T0 at 0.14 kg/plant (2.1 t/ha). Under the conditions of this study, direct solid-compost application produced the highest values for the measured agro-morphological parameters and yield. The 10-day leachate generally performed better than the 5-day leachate, suggesting that soaking time in water may influence leachate performance.

Carbon Mineralization and CO\(_2\) Evolution Dynamics of Wood Biochar Co-Applied with Organic Manures in Inceptisol Soil

Jaisiya Meena, A. B. Gosavi — Thu, 08 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Biochar–manure co-application has the potential to modify soil carbon turnover and nutrient release, but the magnitude and direction of these changes depend on amendment type, ratio, and incubation time. An experiment was conducted to evaluate carbon mineralisation following the incorporation of wood biochar with farmyard manure (FYM), vermicompost (VC), and poultry manure (PM) in an Inceptisol. A total of 11 treatments were evaluated in a completely randomised design with three replications, with observations recorded at 0, 15, 30, 60, 90, and 120 days of incubation. The treatments included an untreated soil control, wood biochar alone, the three organic manures alone, and manure–biochar combinations at 1:1 and 1:2 ratios. CO2-C evolution was determined using standard soil analytical procedures. CO2-C evolution increased from the beginning of incubation to approximately 60 days and subsequently declined or became comparatively stable. Total CO2-C mineralisation was studied using the discarding method, and the maximum value (209.76 mg CO2-C 100 g⁻¹ soil) was observed following incubation of soil + vermicompost @ 8 t/ha + biochar @ 16 t/ha (1:2 ratio) over 120 days. Overall, incubation of wood biochar with vermicompost, poultry manure, or FYM at a 1:2 proportion was found suitable for carbon mineralisation during 60–90 days of incubation, compared with 103.74 mg CO2-C 100 g⁻¹ soil in the control. The soil + vermicompost @ 8 t/ha + wood biochar @ 16 t/ha (1:2 ratio) treatment also produced the highest CO2-C evolution at 15, 30, 90, and 120 days, whereas soil + FYM + wood biochar at 1:2 produced the highest value at 60 days (47.08 mg CO2-C 100 g⁻¹ soil). Thus, manure type and biochar proportion may be selected according to the intended soil-management objective.

Soil and Foliar Application of Molybdenum on Yield and Biochemical Quality of Black Gram (Vigna mungo L.) Grown in Fe Rich Acidic Soils of West Bengal, India

Samayita Basu, Sidhu Murmu, Nafisa, Kanu Murmu, Abir Choudhury — Fri, 09 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

West Bengal is characterised by a predominance of acidic soils, with more than 70% of the cultivated soils exhibiting acidic reactions and relatively high concentrations of Fe and Al. Under such soil conditions, molybdenum (Mo) availability is often restricted, which can adversely affect legume productivity. The yield of kharif black gram in the region remains considerably lower than the national average, partly owing to micronutrient limitations. Therefore, an experiment was conducted to evaluate the response of black gram variety PU-13 to different methods and levels of Mo application. The experiment was carried out at the Mondouri Farm of Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya using an acidic, sandy loam soil with a light texture and relatively low fertility. The soil was characterised by appreciable levels of Fe, Mn and Al and inadequate Mo availability. Four rates of Mo were applied to the soil (0, 0.25, 0.5 and 0.75 kg ha⁻¹) in combination with two foliar concentrations, namely 0.1% (F1) and 0.2% (F2), to assess their effects on crop growth, yield components and nutrient uptake.

The results demonstrated that increasing the concentration of foliar-applied Mo enhanced the growth and yield-related characteristics of black gram. A similar positive response was observed when foliar application was combined with soil application of Mo. However, the beneficial effect was observed only up to the application of 0.25 kg Mo ha⁻¹ to the soil in combination with a 0.2% foliar spray. Beyond this treatment level, a decline in the measured growth and yield attributes was recorded. The maximum grain yield of 549 kg ha⁻¹ was obtained with the combined application of 0.25 kg Mo ha⁻¹ to the soil and a 0.2% Mo foliar spray. Molybdenum application also positively influenced the uptake of the major nutrients, particularly N, P and K. The greatest nutrient uptake was recorded under the S₃F₂ treatment combination. Post-harvest soil analysis further indicated an improvement in soil fertility status, with a positive NPK balance remaining in the soil after accounting for crop nutrient removal. Overall, the findings indicate that integrating soil and foliar application of Mo can improve the performance and nutrient utilisation of black gram cultivated under acidic, Fe-rich and low-fertility soil conditions. Among the treatments evaluated, the combined application of 0.25 kg Mo ha⁻¹ to the soil together with a 0.2% foliar spray proved to be the most effective treatment for maximising black gram productivity under the experimental conditions.

Effect of Different Legume-Based Intercropping Systems on Vegetative and Phenological Attributes of Maize (Zea mays L.)

Fri, 09 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Maize-based intercropping offers a sustainable approach to improving maize productivity by enhancing resource-use efficiency and crop performance. A two-year field experiment (2024-2025) was conducted to evaluate the effect of ten maize-based intercropping systems on the growth and phenological development of maize under a randomised block design. Significant differences were observed among treatments for all measured parameters. The maize + cowpea + marigold system (T₁₀) consistently recorded the highest plant height (224.9 cm), leaf area index (4.34), stem diameter (2.85 cm), dry matter accumulation (180.0 g plant^-1), crop growth rate (33.47 g m^-2 day^-1), relative growth rate (0.035 g g^-1 day^-1), and SPAD chlorophyll index (55.8), while sole maize recorded the lowest values. The same treatment also accelerated crop phenology, resulting in earlier tasselling (54.6 days), silking (57.3 days), and physiological maturity (109.2 days). Improved crop performance under T₁₀ was associated with better utilisation of light, water, and nutrients, leading to enhanced vegetative growth and timely reproductive development. Overall, the maize + cowpea + marigold intercropping system proved to be the most effective strategy for improving maize growth and developmental efficiency, highlighting its potential as a sustainable alternative to sole maize cultivation.

Effect of Phosphate Solubilising Bacteria on Tomato Growth and Biological Control of Pythium sp., the Causal Agent of Tomato Root Rot Disease under Pot Grown Conditions

Fri, 09 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Poorly soluble phosphates may become more available to plants through the activity of phosphate-solubilising bacteria, potentially improving growth where P is limiting. Four strains, identified as Bacillus sp., Paenibacillus sp., Curtobacterium sp. and Burkholderia sp., were examined for their ability to release phosphorus from rock phosphates of different origins and to affect tomato growth with or without Pythium sp., the organism associated with root rot. Initially, the strains were tested in solid and liquid NBRIP media containing Algerian, Senegalese, Malian, Moroccan or Mexican rock phosphate. Solubilisation indices on agar ranged from 1.92 to 3.21, with the highest overall value recorded for Bacillus sp. Algerian and Senegalese phosphate gave the greatest indices (3.55 and 3.48, respectively). In liquid culture, soluble P varied from 95.56 mg/L with Burkholderia sp. to 335.54 mg/L with Curtobacterium sp. Release of soluble P was highest from Senegalese phosphate, followed by the Malian, Algerian, Mexican and Moroccan sources. A greenhouse pot study then assessed tomato growth in Senegalese rock-phosphate-amended soil after bacterial inoculation, either with or without Pythium sp. Effects on plant height, stem diameter and dry biomass differed between strains. For certain growth measures, Bacillus sp., Curtobacterium sp. and Burkholderia sp. performed better than the negative control. These results suggest a possible contribution of selected strains to phosphate solubilisation and tomato growth, although validation under field conditions remains necessary.

Seasonal Consistency and Agronomic-Economic Trade-offs of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi, Organic Manure and NPK Nutrient Management for Maize in Semi-Arid Taveta, Kenya

Tue, 13 Oct 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Sustainable maize production in semi-arid environments requires nutrient-management strategies that account for seasonal variability in crop responses to biological, organic and mineral inputs. This study evaluated the agronomic and economic responses of maize to arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), organic manure (OM), NPK fertiliser and their pairwise combinations in Taveta, Kenya. A two-season randomised complete block experiment comprised seven treatments replicated three times per season. Maize (Zea mays L.) cv. DK 777 received AMF, OM, NPK 17:17:17, AMF+OM, AMF+NPK, OM+NPK or no amendment. Plot-level analyses tested treatment, season and treatment × season effects, with Tukey HSD used for mean separation. Treatment significantly affected grain yield and biomass (P < .001), whereas treatment × season interactions were not significant (P = .772 and .408, respectively). Pooled grain yield was highest under NPK (148.23 g plant⁻¹), OM+NPK (147.77 g plant⁻¹) and AMF+NPK (146.17 g plant⁻¹), compared with 92.03 g plant⁻¹ in the control. Root length showed a significant treatment × season interaction (P = .011), indicating greater seasonal sensitivity of below-ground responses. Week-6 plant height, leaf area and stem diameter were strongly associated with grain yield in both seasons. NPK generated the highest two-season mean net benefit (KSh 1,401.08) and benefit-cost ratio (4.00). Overall, NPK and NPK-containing pairwise treatments produced strong productivity responses, although pairwise combinations did not significantly outperform NPK alone for pooled grain yield. These findings support context-specific nutrient management that integrates agronomic performance, seasonal variability and short-term economic returns.