International Journal of Plant & Soil Science

Cocoa production is increasingly exposed to heat, rainfall variability and severe drought, while the ecological simplification of many cocoa landscapes has reduced the biological and structural buffers that can moderate climatic stress. Cocoa agroforestry is therefore promoted as a strategy that can simultaneously support adaptation, carbon storage, biodiversity and farmer livelihoods. Yet this proposition is often expressed too generally: shade can cool cocoa canopies and reduce atmospheric demand, but shade trees also compete for light and water, alter pest and disease environments, and create labour and economic obligations. This critical narrative review evaluates how shade-tree identity, functional traits, canopy architecture, density and spatial arrangement mediate these trade-offs. Literature published from 1 January 2000 to 15 July 2026 was considered, with earlier or later records excluded from the evidential synthesis except where bibliographic verification was required. Evidence was appraised for design quality, climatic context, duration, measurement validity and transferability across producing regions. The synthesis shows that cocoa agroforestry cannot be reduced to a universal shade percentage. Elevated crowns, seasonally appropriate leaf phenology, complementary rooting and useful by-products can improve microclimate regulation while limiting crop competition, whereas poorly matched species or excessive canopy closure may depress yield, intensify water competition or favour disease. Aboveground carbon gains under agroforestry are well supported, but soil-carbon responses are less consistent and forest conservation remains irreplaceable. Biodiversity generally benefits from structural complexity relative to open cocoa, although agroforests remain imperfect substitutes for intact forest and responses depend on land-use history and landscape context. Economic evidence further shows that yield alone is an inadequate indicator of farm performance. The most defensible pathway is climate-contingent functional shade design combined with farmer knowledge, monitoring and adaptive management. Future research should prioritise long-term, multi-site experiments that jointly quantify crop physiology, yield, biodiversity, carbon, disease, labour and profitability under realistic climate extremes.